Chapter Sixty-Five: An Analysis of Social Structure in the Late Han Dynasty

Although today's banquet introduced Shen Chen to people like Pang Tong and Xu Shu, he found little cause for joy. The clash between the values of ancient times and those of later generations diminished the thrill of meeting famous figures. When he saw the true nature of these aristocratic families, a deep sense of fear welled up within him. The most basic moral standards of humanity had not yet taken root in antiquity. The two sides held markedly different views on what constituted morality.

It was as if the "Twenty-Four Filial Exemplars," regarded in later times as outdated and foolish, were seen by people of the era as the highest moral ideal. No wonder the chaos of the Five Barbarians occurred. Twisted ethics, combined with the aloof, noble families never caring for the commoners, led to disaster. When the upper classes stop seeing the lower classes as human, when peasants become nothing more than livestock, why should they risk their lives to defend the homes and country of those above them? This worried him greatly.

After pondering for a long time, Shen Chen temporarily put these thoughts aside. After all, the values of later generations sprang from basic morals, but also from sufficient productivity—when grain stores are full, people can observe etiquette; only when one can afford to eat does one contemplate life. In this war-torn era, to preach that the lives of commoners matter was like playing music to cattle. Thus, the discussion on current affairs quickly ended. The gathered scholars shifted to academic topics, and Shen Chen joined in, putting aside questions of worldview and integrating himself into the conversation. Though their views differed, when the entire world shared the same perspective, he became the odd one out. There was no need to say what others disliked hearing and invite rejection.

As afternoon wore on, the group, satisfied with food and drink, continued their conversation—from astronomy and geography to the daily affairs of the people, from ancient classics to contemporary writings—soon becoming fast friends. When the rain stopped, the banquet dispersed. Wang Can planned to visit a friend in Zhonglu County, Pan Jun and the others returned to the academy, Xu Shu escorted Pang Tong back to his hometown, and only Shen Chen said he was going back to his great-uncle's house in the city.

The wine lodge arranged carriages for each of them. After arriving at his great-uncle's house, Shen Chen learned that Deng Hong had gone out to visit friends. Unwilling to return to the academy, he took some cured meat as a gift and had the household servants drive him to Longzhong in the west of the city.

After arriving in Xiangyang, Zhuge Xuan had settled in Longzhong, purchased land, built a house, and after marrying off Zhuge Liang's two sisters, he was left to raise Zhuge Liang and his younger brother alone.

Arriving at Longzhong, Shen Chen went straight to knock on the door. The servant boy of the Zhuge family opened it, and Shen Chen asked where Zhuge Xuan was, wanting to pay his respects to his elder first. Unexpectedly, the boy replied that Zhuge Xuan had also gone out to visit friends. It was the end of the year, the prefectural offices were closed for the holiday, and many officials were on vacation. If they weren't packing up to return home, they took this time to visit friends.

Though Zhuge Xuan was out, Zhuge Liang and his brother were at home reading. Hearing that Shen Chen had come alone, they happily invited him into the backyard. Shen Chen handed his gift to the servant and followed Zhuge Liang and Zhuge Jun to the rear courtyard.

"Ah Chen, you haven't visited me for over a month now," Zhuge Liang said warmly. At fifteen, he stood at a height of one meter seventy-four, tall and slender, and led Shen Chen into the study.

"Is your elder brother reading at home?" Shen Chen asked, noticing that the room was heated by a brazier, mats were spread on the floor, and books lined the wooden shelves on both sides. With the cold weather, Zhuge Liang stayed home, warming himself as he read.

Zhuge Liang sat cross-legged and nodded. "Yes, the year's end is near. Uncle said he would visit my two brothers-in-law in a few days, then join them and my sisters in ancestral rites. So we'll stay home these days and not go out."

The Han dynasty had elaborate ritual traditions; every festival required ancestral worship, with a set of ceremonies—ritual bathing, incense, and restrictions on going out; during the Cold Food Festival, hot meals were even forbidden.

Shen Chen sat beside him and remarked, "We plan to return to Huangmen Pavilion for the New Year as well. It's been over two years since we moved from Xuzhou to Jingzhou. We may not return to our hometown, so we'll set up an altar here to honor our ancestors."

Beside them, Zhuge Jun, twelve and shorter than Shen Chen, suddenly said, "I heard the emperor has returned to Luoyang and escaped the control of the Xiliang warriors. Will the world be at peace, and will we be able to return home?"

Shen Chen shook his head. "The emperor has just escaped the tiger’s den only to enter the wolf’s lair. Now, Cao Cao holds court in Xuchang, controlling the imperial government. 'Welcoming the emperor' is just using him to command the lords. The wars in the Central Plains may drag on for years."

"Cao Cao has obtained the emperor?" Zhuge Liang frowned. He and Zhuge Jun stayed home daily and knew little of outside events. The news they had was from over a month ago, when Zhuge Xuan mentioned the emperor’s arrival in Luoyang; Jingzhou, being southern, received news slowly. Liu Xie arrived in Luoyang in autumn, July; in September, the capital moved to Xuchang. Liu Biao had only recently received word and sent envoys in tribute.

Thus, all of Jingzhou knew that in September Liu Xie moved the capital to Xuchang, but Zhuge Liang and his brother, cut off from sources, lagged even further behind.

Shen Chen nodded. "Yes, the emperor is now in Cao Cao's hands. Many think Cao Cao will be like Duke Zhou or Huo Guang. What does elder brother think?"

Zhuge Liang pondered for a long time, then shook his head. "I don't know."

"Do you believe someone like Cao Cao would choose to restore the Han dynasty?" Shen Chen pressed.

"Judging by his actions, he is exceedingly cruel. I can't say for certain... but I don't think Duke Zhou or Huo Guang would be so ruthless."

Though Zhuge Liang was gifted from childhood, he dared not judge, having witnessed too much misery on the journey south from Xuzhou. He thought Duke Zhou and Huo Guang would not be so brutal.

"Do you think the people are important?" Shen Chen asked.

"Of course," Zhuge Liang replied. "Mencius said: 'The people are most important, the state comes next, the ruler is least.'"

"Then why do these aristocratic families, high-born nobles, treat the people like wild grass to be trampled at will?"

"Are you referring to Cao Cao?"

"No. Today I spent time with several aristocratic youths and observed their words and deeds. I asked what they thought of Cao Cao's massacre of tens of thousands in Xuzhou. They considered it a trivial matter."

Shen Chen felt frustrated. The difference in values between him and the ancients made him question his own beliefs.

He did not doubt the correctness of later values, but wondered if he simply had not adapted to this era, and whether he should learn from those aristocrats to be a little more ruthless at times. He had never thought himself especially clever, often making mistakes and overlooking things. But his strength lay in his ability to reflect and review his actions.

He reviewed the day's events and kept thinking: was it he who was out of step with the world, or was the world wrong and he right?

Zhuge Liang considered for a long time, then shook his head. "I'm sorry, Ah Chen. I can't give you an answer, but I believe that wanton slaughter of the people is certainly wrong."

"I'm troubled," Shen Chen said, scratching his head. "I can't understand why things are like this."

"Perhaps there's someone who can tell you," Zhuge Liang suggested.

"Who?"

"You could ask Master Pang," Zhuge Liang replied. "Last month, Uncle took me to visit him. I think he is a wise elder."

"Would you accompany me?" Shen Chen asked.

"Of course," Zhuge Liang said, glancing at Zhuge Jun. "Little brother, stay home. I'll go with Ah Chen to Yuliang Isle."

"But it's already afternoon," Zhuge Jun said. "To reach Yuliang Isle we have to take a boat. Will you be back today?"

"It doesn't matter," Shen Chen replied. "If we can't return, we'll stay in the city."

The two set out immediately.

Yuliang Isle was quite far from Longzhong, which lay about seventeen Han li west of Xiangyang—roughly seven kilometers in modern terms—and a carriage ride to Xiangyang took forty minutes. From Xiangyang to Yuliang Isle required a boat; from the dock, following the Han River east, it was over thirty li. Even downstream, it took more than an hour. A round trip was about two hours, plus time spent conversing with Master Pang. With the afternoon already one or two o’clock, returning to Longzhong today seemed unlikely.

But since Zhuge Liang agreed, it was no matter. After all, Shen Chen's great-uncle's house was his home, and one more person sleeping there made little difference.

Taking a carriage to Xiangyang, then a boat from the dock, accompanied by two Deng family servants, they arrived at Master Pang’s residence on Yuliang Isle around the third quarter of the afternoon.

Master Pang had a large estate on the isle. According to "Records of Xiangyang," besides his wife, he had many servants, befitting the head of the Pang clan. Though he lived in seclusion, his life was comfortable.

At that hour, Master Pang was eating. Afternoon was the traditional time for a meal. Upon hearing Shen Chen and Zhuge Liang had come to visit, he welcomed them in.

Both carried gifts. In the hall were Master Pang, his wife, his son Pang Shanmin, and daughter-in-law Lady Zhuge.

"Little brother, why are you here?" Lady Zhuge exclaimed in surprise.

Historically, Zhuge Liang met Master Pang after his second sister married Pang Shanmin. Thus, their connection made them kin.

Zhuge Liang explained, "Ah Chen has some questions for Master Pang. I came with him."

Shen Chen handed his gift to a servant and bowed respectfully. "Master Pang, forgive my intrusion."

Master Pang, around fifty but looking forty, was kindly and smiled. "Would you care to eat?"

"We already ate with Xu Shu and Pang Tong," Shen Chen replied.

Master Pang nodded. "Then wait in the hall for a while."

The two withdrew and waited in the outer hall. After about ten minutes, Master Pang came out, sitting cross-legged on the mat.

They rose and bowed.

Master Pang waved them to sit, then asked, "What is it?"

Shen Chen explained his dilemma, then asked, "I wish to ask, Master Pang, is the life and death of the people truly so unimportant?"

Master Pang considered. "Important, but also not important."

"Why?" Shen Chen pressed.

Master Pang replied, "When the world is at peace, the court relies on the people to grow grain and sustain the nation, so the people are esteemed above all. But when chaos reigns and even the state and ruler cannot be preserved, the countless starving commoners become a burden, and their importance fades."

Shen Chen mused, "So when the country is stable, laws can be upheld. But in times of upheaval, law disappears, and human life becomes insignificant."

Master Pang said, "'The Book of Rites' tells us: 'All things have roots and branches; all matters have beginning and end. Knowing what comes first and last brings one close to the Way.' When the state collapses and law is gone, people will do anything to survive. We cannot condemn others morally for slaughtering the people; we can only call them cruel."

"Then do you believe that after slaughtering so many in Xuzhou, Cao Cao could one day assist the emperor and become a Duke Zhou or Huo Guang?" Shen Chen asked.

Master Pang shook his head. "I am not Cao Cao; I cannot know his thoughts. All I can say is that as long as the emperor is in Xuchang, Cao Cao holds legitimacy and can gather the world under his banner. People will choose to forget his massacre."

"Why?"

"'Six Strategies' says: 'All under heaven bustle for profit; all under heaven strive for gain.'"

"So the root cause is the pursuit of power?"

"You could say so."

"But if among the slaughtered were the families of those who chase power, would they be so indifferent?"

"All great families are the same. Shun killed Gun, yet Yu served Shun. The Marquis of Wei killed Yuanjiao, yet Yuanxuan remained loyal. For a clan to prosper, power is indispensable."

Shen Chen gradually understood the values of the era. For aristocratic families, the interests of the clan superseded all else, especially in the late Han and early Wei-Jin periods, when aristocratic politics ruled society.

Thus, the lives of commoners meant nothing to these families. For the sake of their clan, even entering the service of an enemy was not a concern. For example, Sun Ce destroyed the Lu clan in Lujiang, yet Lu Xun later served Eastern Wu and dedicated himself to the Sun family. Cao Cao killed Zhou Buyi, and his uncle Liu Xian dared not utter a word, later even becoming Minister of Wei.

If they could set aside hatred for their own kin in pursuit of power, how could the deaths of unrelated commoners matter to them?

Thus, in ancient society, human life was a pyramid: only those of high status mattered. Those at the base were mere cattle and horses, tools for production.

Having received Master Pang’s guidance, Shen Chen understood the temperament of these aristocratic clans and gained clarity.

After some thought, he asked, "Is there any way to make the common people valued?"

"There is," Master Pang replied. "If peace is restored and the people produce more grain, offering more wealth to those above, they will be valued—but only as assets."

"Productivity," Shen Chen realized, recalling his high school political studies.

Master Pang was curious. "What do you mean by productivity?"

Shen Chen explained, "It means the yield from the fields. Cao Cao slaughtered the people in Xuzhou partly to block Yuan Shu’s advance, but also because his army lacked grain. By looting, he solved the shortage. If the land produced more, if grain were abundant, perhaps he wouldn’t have needed to do it."

Previously, people analyzed Cao Cao's motives as blocking Yuan Shu, but the issue of food shortages couldn’t be ignored. If Cao Cao had enough grain, he could have simply relocated the population as later happened in Hanzhong and Huainan. Ultimately, it was a matter of productivity.

In later generations, with abundant resources, people forgot what it meant to go hungry, what it meant for scarcity to leave corpses on the roads.

Even after crossing over, Shen Chen had no worries about food and clothing, so he hadn’t considered this at first. But Master Pang’s words reminded him.

In Huangmen Pavilion, there was no lack of food thanks to fertilization techniques. But the world was not everywhere like Huangmen Pavilion; war in the Central Plains rendered farming impossible, and famine was widespread.

If productivity were sufficient, perhaps Cao Cao would not have relied on massacre to resolve his crisis.

"Yes, the fundamental issue is that people must eat," Master Pang sighed. "If everyone could eat their fill and study, what would give the aristocratic clans the right to treat commoners as weeds?"

In that instant, Shen Chen became serious, rose, and bowed to Master Pang. "Thank you, Master Pang, for solving my doubts."

Master Pang regarded him with interest. "What have you understood?"

Shen Chen replied, "I understand why the world is unjust, why the realm is as it is."

"And why is that?" Master Pang asked.

"Because the common people can scarcely feed themselves, their lives are as cheap as grass. The classics handed down by ancient sages are controlled by the aristocratic families, leaving the people with no way to rise, no way to change their poverty-stricken fate."

Shen Chen continued, "The doors of the wealthy reek of wine and meat, while the roads are lined with the bones of the frozen dead. The root cause of the Yellow Turban Rebellion was that the people’s land was seized by the aristocratic clans, forcing them to revolt for survival."

Master Pang praised him. "It is excellent that you see this. I, too, read many books, met many people, traveled far, and only understood this after many years. Do you think such a world can change?"

"I think it can," Shen Chen said. "If someone were to stabilize the chaos, find ways to increase the yield of the fields, and impart knowledge freely to all, the world would become better."

"It's difficult," Master Pang shook his head. "I've pondered for years and found no solution. That’s why, though Liu Biao invited me to serve, I declined. I know I cannot change it. I can only teach occasionally and farm for myself, but cannot protect anyone."

Liu Biao and Master Pang had discussed this often. Liu Biao hoped Master Pang would help him preserve the people. But Master Pang believed everyone had their own destiny; lacking the power to change things, he preferred the peace of poverty and chose to preserve himself rather than serve.

In this, Zhuge Liang differed from him. Though Zhuge Liang knew Liu Bei was too weak, and success unlikely, he still pursued his ideals, striving for what seemed impossible.

Perhaps Master Pang saw the world’s nature more clearly, but in righteousness and courage, Zhuge Liang surpassed his former teacher.

"Master Pang has despaired of the world, thinking he cannot change it and thus chooses seclusion, but I am the opposite," Shen Chen said, raising his head, his eyes shining. "I believe there will be others like me who cherish the people and uphold their mission."

Master Pang sighed deeply. "The young are to be admired. I hope you hold fast to your convictions."

"I will," Shen Chen replied firmly. In that moment, he understood the logic and structure of the late Han hierarchy, and knew how to break the entrenched order.